Mokum: Amsterdam, a “safe place”
Amsterdam, the capital of the Netherlands is located in the region of North Holland. (Fig 1) The purpose of the paper is to provide an overview of the unique confluence of environmental and social conditions that led to Amsterdam’s current urban and social form. Amsterdam has been responsive to citizen’s needs and built their infrastructure around a spirit of political engagement for the greatest good. As a historically merchant city, Amsterdam has welcomed many nationalities from its inception. An open-minded spirit of tolerance dominates much of the decision making that leads to its current iteration. A mixture of Dutch and international ideals contribute to the urban form. From boats to bikes, Amsterdam has drawn international appeal and the involvement of its citizenry to enact human scale changes to make it a distinctly livable European city.
The early urban form of Amsterdam begins from the nexus of a fishing village. The city is built on a peat bog and well into the 14th century remained a village built on dikes meant to control and dam the Amstel river. As technology developed canals and sluices were introduced, which allowed for greater expansion. Large scale government expansion works began in the 1600s as the population increased. The high cost of land and risk of developing on marshy ground was unappealing to developers. But as the city grew in wealth they created islands and new worker districts, including the Jordaan neighborhood. In 1613 the city commenced work on the grachtengordel, a semicircular canal belt for transportation with subordinate streets. [1]
The città ideale (ideal city) is a philosophy in a series of works written between 1450–1650, drawn from Roman architect Vitruvius aesthetics of the circle and square. It strongly influenced the construction boom of the 1600s. (Figure 2) The main canal ring is modeled off of the Vitruvian radial city. [2] The canal belt is a UNESCO World Heritage site based on the criteria of exemplary “hydraulics, civil engineering, town planning, construction and architectural knowhow.” [3] The city annexed smaller villages into its municipality as it expanded. “In spatial terms, Amsterdam is still the region’s traditional core with clear traces of its historical growth from the fishing port behind the ‘Dam’ on the Amstel river and its seventeenth- and nineteenth-century expansions.” [4]
The Dutch and Amsterdammers in general have extremely liberal attitudes towards innovation, diversity and public engagement. There was no king or superior government in the formative years of the city. It functioned as a city state with wealthy merchants and bankers’ ruling policy decisions. They made the city friendly to commerce as it benefited their interests. Thus Amsterdam became a center of world trade and population booms in the 16th and 17th centuries. [5] It was and continues to be an extremely multicultural city. Trade trumped personal faith and “the development of a humanist and tolerant culture linked to the Calvinist Reformation.” [6] Though the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion in the 18th century, by the 19th century they tolerated Catholicism and Judaism. A system of “pillarization” existed in which people of different faiths did not interact except at the government level. This has mainly been eliminated but the core values of tolerance continue. “The Netherlands is a ‘consensual society’ . This is reflected in the extensive consultation, ‘politics of accommodation’ and ‘interwoven planning,’ which are well displayed in Amsterdam’s metropolitan regional plan.” [7] There’s even a Dutch word for this model of cooperation, poldermodel, “a Dutch term for an approach in which efforts are made to reach a broad national (or local) consensus on important issues.” [8]
Thus the demographics of Amsterdam skews international and multicultural. As of 2023, according to UN Urbanization Prospects the Amsterdam metropolitan area has a population of 1,174,025 people and a population density of 4,908 people per square kilometer (12,710/sq mi). [9] “The racial and ethnic makeup of Amsterdam as of 2012 was 49.5% Dutch and 50.5% foreign ancestry. ” [10] In 2014, Onderzoek en Statistiek (Amsterdam Office for Research and Statistics) found that Amsterdam is home to 180 nationalities.[11] 35% of adults and over half of the children living in Amsterdam are of non-Western origin. The top five countries of origin after the Netherlands are Morocco, Suriname, Turkey, Indonesia, and Germany. (Figure 3) [12]
In the 1600’s Amsterdam had mostly water based transportation as carriages could not navigate the mud. Instead they used ferries and barges for people as well as goods. In the 1800s railroad technology translated into moving freight and people over land. In modern times there is the bicycle and tram. Amsterdam is known in particular for its bike centric infrastructure. The post WWII economic boom meant more income for cars. Neighborhoods were torn down to create wide car-focused roadways. The casualties as a result of increased traffic led to 400 childrens deaths in 1971. Protests by citizen activists and cycling demonstrations led to subsidies by the Dutch Government and developed ideas for safer planning. The concept of poldermodel continues to be important as the Dutch government listened to its citizens and implemented policy solutions. They developed the Dutch woonerf, streets that are shared spaces for pedestrians, cyclists and cars who go slowly over speed bumps which are now ubiquitous in Dutch municipalities. During the oil crisis of the 1970s and immediately after, Dutch politicians began introducing cyclist friendly routes. Dutch cities began to introduce networks of cycling paths and now more than a quarter of all trips are made by bicycle. [13]
One concern in Amsterdam due to its historic location on the river and the built foundation of the city on a muddy bog, is the lack of viable land for new developments. Historically Amsterdam transitioned from private ownership to long leases in the mid 1800s. This benefited the community as the municipality developed the land and was able to build homes for low-income populations.[14] The proliferation of the automobile coupled with urban renewal projects meant an income disparity from the city center to its suburbs. As the diverse population of Amsterdam continues its upward trajectory, affordable housing is necessary. Commercial enterprises are also continuing to be drawn to the city which is hemmed in by natural landscape as well as densely compacted houses, the airport, and harbor.
Renewal projects in the 1970s and 1980s focused on social-sector housing and less than 35% of the dwellings were in the market sector. “At its peak in 1995, Amsterdam’s housing stock consisted of 55% public housing and an additional sector of regulated affordable private rent (about 15%).” [15] This means a city of renters and very few owner occupied dwellings. Due to the high level of public engagement much effort has been put into new solutions as well as obtaining government subsidies for historic restoration. On the opposite side of this coin, these subsidies can contribute to gentrification of the inner city by developing desirable amenities which were then sold off due to deregulation of urban housing associations in the 1990’s. “Owner occupancy increased from 8% of the total housing stock in 1990 to 29% in 2014” [16] Regulated rental housing still accounts for the slim majority of housing in Amsterdam in recent years.
“Mokum,” the Yiddish word meaning “place” or “safe haven” is a popular nickname for Amsterdam. [17] Historical dynamics of religious tolerance contributed to the unique political liberalism of the city and paved the way for the city’s current problem solving. The Netherlands was the first county to legalize same-sex marriage in 2001 and hosts a world famous Pride parade in August. The uniquely Dutch attitude of political engagement and permissive legality make Amsterdam affordable to live, intolerant of discrimination, and safe to walk or bike. Although they face issues of urban sprawl, revitalization and wealth gaps just like any city. Just as they first dammed the Amstel river, Amsterdammers will continue to find ways to work with their surroundings for the greatest good.
Works Cited
Alexander, E. R. “Metropolitan Regional Planning in Amsterdam: A Case Study.” The Town Planning Review 73, no. 1 (2002): 17–40. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40112481.
“Amsterdam.” The Aldine 6, no. 6 (1873): 125–125. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20636561.
Dutch Amsterdam.”Amsterdam is One of the Most Multicultural Cities in the World.” Dutch Amsterdam. March 23, 2022. https://www.dutchamsterdam.nl/889-more-citizens-and-more-nationalities-in-amsterdam
Dutch Amsterdam.”Why is Amsterdam so tolerant?” Dutch Amsterdam. January 6, 2017. https://www.dutchamsterdam.nl/171-why-is-amsterdam-so-tolerant
Kahn, Dennis, and Gerrit van der Plas. “Amsterdam.” Cities 16, no. 5 (1999): 371–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-2751(99)00019-0.
Mak, Geert. “Amsterdam as the ‘Compleat Citie’: A City Plan Read in Five Episodes.” In Amsterdam Human Capital, edited by Sako Musterd and Willem Salet, 31–48. Amsterdam University Press, 2003. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46mv3p.5.
Savini, Federico, Willem R. Boterman, Wouter P.C. van Gent, and Stan Majoor. “Amsterdam in the 21st Century: Geography, Housing, Spatial Development and Politics.” Cities 52 (2016): 103–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.11.017.
OTTENHEYM, KONRAD A. “Amsterdam 1700: Urban Space and Public Buildings.” Studies in the History of Art 66 (2005): 118–37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42622380.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Seventeenth-Century Canal Ring Area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht” UNESCO. 2010. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1349/
Van der Zee, Renate. “How Amsterdam became the bicycle capital of the world.” The Guardian. May 5, 2015.
[1] Mak, Geert. “Amsterdam as the ‘Compleat Citie’: A City Plan Read in Five Episodes.” In Amsterdam Human Capital, edited by Sako Musterd and Willem Salet, 31–48. Amsterdam University Press, 2003. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt46mv3p.5. 33.
[2] Mak, Geert. “Amsterdam as the ‘Compleat Citie’: A City Plan Read in Five Episodes.”. 37.
[3] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Seventeenth-Century Canal Ring Area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht” UNESCO. 2010. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1349/
[4] Alexander, E. R. “Metropolitan Regional Planning in Amsterdam: A Case Study.” The Town Planning Review 73, no. 1 (2002): 17–40. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40112481. 19..
[5] OTTENHEYM, KONRAD A. “Amsterdam 1700: Urban Space and Public Buildings.” Studies in the History of Art 66 (2005): 118–37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42622380. 119.
[6] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. “Seventeenth-Century Canal Ring Area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht” UNESCO. 2010. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1349/
[7] Alexander, E. R. “Metropolitan Regional Planning in Amsterdam: A Case Study.” 21.
[8] Dutch Amsterdam.”Amsterdam is One of the Most Multicultural Cities in the World.” Dutch Amsterdam. March 23, 2022. https://www.dutchamsterdam.nl/889-more-citizens-and-more-nationalities-in-amsterdam
[9] Amsterdam population 2023. Accessed April 12, 2023. https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/amsterdam-population.
[10] Amsterdam population 2023.
[11] Dutch Amsterdam.
[12] Amsterdam population 2023.
[13] Van der Zee, Renate. “How Amsterdam became the bicycle capital of the world.”
[14] Kahn, Dennis, and Gerrit van der Plas. “Amsterdam.” Cities 16, no. 5 (1999): 371–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-2751(99)00019-0.
[15] Savini, Federico, Willem R. Boterman, Wouter P.C. van Gent, and Stan Majoor. “Amsterdam in the 21st Century: Geography, Housing, Spatial Development and Politics.” Cities 52 (2016): 103–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.11.017.
[16] Savini, Federico, Willem R. Boterman, Wouter P.C. van Gent, and Stan Majoor. “Amsterdam in the 21st Century: Geography, Housing, Spatial Development and Politics.”
[17] Dutch Amsterdam.”Why is Amsterdam so tolerant?” Dutch Amsterdam. January 6, 2017. https://www.dutchamsterdam.nl/171-why-is-amsterdam-so-tolerant